fix: backport wal corruption fix to 2.9.x

[Segflow]

Backport 1954f67 from #18175

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What this PR does / why we need it:

Currently a WAL corruption lead to endless restart loops, as reported in issue #12583. Users experience crashes with errors like:

corruption in segment /var/loki/tsdb-shipper-active/wal/s3_2024-01-02/1712203235/00000004 at 65536: last record is torn
error recovering from TSDB WAL

and

"error running loki" err="corruption in segment /data/loki/index/wal/filesystem_2023-05-01/1727455534/00000000 at 81944: unexpected checksum 2ffb91ba, expected 5999e2d7
error recovering from TSDB WAL

This causes loki to crashloop indefinitely, repeatedly reading the WAL and updating object storage, which can be costly for large WALs.

This PR adds the ability to repair the WAL on startup (if possible). It also adds unit tests which corrupt the WAL and try to recover it after.

Notice that we only recover from the corruption at the TSDB WAL level. Any corruption in the data part (invalid chunks or invalid series) is unrecoverable and we just log the error and crash.

It also includes some documentation about the WAL format used for future reference.

The metric wal_corruptions_repairs_total is added to track whenever we fail or succeed to repair the corrupted WAL.

Which issue(s) this PR fixes:
Fixes #12583

Special notes for your reviewer:

Checklist

• Reviewed the CONTRIBUTING.md guide (required)
• Documentation added
• Tests updated
• Title matches the required conventional commits format, see here
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